Indications of Weather and Climate in the Book of Mormon
Indications of Weather and Climate
in the Book of Mormon
by Ted Dee Stoddard
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The “Heartland Model” for Book of Mormon geography maintains that all New World events of the Book of Mormon took place between the Great Lakes on the north and the Gulf of Mexico on the south. The “Mesoamerica Model,” on the other hand, proposes that all New World events of the Book of Mormon took place in the geographic area known as Mesoamerica—from Mexico City on the west to the western regions of El Salvador and Honduras on the east.
Proponents of the Heartland Model teach that the continental United States is exclusively the territory referred to in such scriptural expressions as “this land” and “promised land.”
This article shows that such expressions also clearly refer to the territory of Mesoamerica. Further, this article presents evidences associated with massive volcanic eruptions as proof that the New World destruction recorded in the Book of Mormon at the time of Christ’s crucifixion occurred in Mesoamerica rather than in territory of the continental United States east of the Mississippi River.
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1. Guatemala has only two seasons—hot and really hot. (Lowland Guatemala is hot during the dry season—but not necessarily so during the rainy season. Highland Guatemala is often referred to as the “land of eternal spring” because of its temperate year-round climate. And the Pacific coastal area of Guatemala varies in hotness, depending on the elevation and time of the year. Throughout much of Mesoamerica, “seasons” are associated with the “dry season” and the “rainy season”—as opposed to fall, winter, spring, and summer seasons.)
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Any potential New World setting for the Book of Mormon must show evidence of volcanic eruptions during the time periods of the Book of Mormon.
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| Show me a New World geographic area that exhibited volcanic eruptions during the Book of Mormon time periods, and I will give serious consideration to that area as the New World setting for the Book of Mormon. |
| Based on the destructive forces described in the Book of Mormon in conjunction with the crucifixion of Christ, if the archaeological and historical records of a proposed New World setting for the Book of Mormon do not exhibit major volcanic activities during the Book of Mormon time periods, then that proposed setting cannot be valid as the New World setting for the Book of Mormon. |
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And it came to pass that I saw a mist of darkness on the face of the land of promise; and I saw lightnings, and I heard thunderings, and earthquakes, and all manner of tumultuous noises; and I saw the earth and the rocks, that they rent; and I saw mountains tumbling into pieces; and I saw the plains of the earth, that they were broken up; and I saw many cities that they were sunk; and I saw many that they were burned with fire; and I saw many that did tumble to the earth, because of the quaking thereof.
And it came to pass after I saw these things, I saw the vapor of darkness, that it passed from off the face of the earth; and behold, I saw multitudes who had not fallen because of the great and terrible judgments of the Lord.
And I saw the heavens open, and the Lamb of God descending out of heaven; and he came down and showed himself unto them. (1 Nephi 12:4–6; emphasis added)
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And behold, again, another sign I give unto you, yea, a sign of his death. . . .
But behold, as I said unto you concerning another sign, a sign of his death, behold, in that day that he shall suffer death the sun shall be darkened and refuse to give his light unto you; and also the moon and the stars; and there shall be no light upon the face of this land, even from the time that he shall suffer death, for the space of three days, to the time that he shall rise again from the dead.
Yea, at the time that he shall yield up the ghost there shall be thunderings and lightnings for the space of many hours, and the earth shall shake and tremble; and the rocks which are upon the face of this earth, which are both above the earth and beneath, which ye know at this time are solid, or the more part of it is one solid mass, shall be broken up;
Yea, they shall be rent in twain, and shall ever after be found in seams and in cracks, and in broken fragments upon the face of the whole earth, yea, both above the earth and beneath.
And behold, there shall be great tempests, and there shall be many mountains laid low, like unto a valley, and there shall be many places which are now called valleys which shall become mountains, whose height is great.
And many highways shall be broken up, and many cities shall become desolate.
And many graves shall be opened, and shall yield up many of their dead; and many saints shall appear unto many.
And behold, thus hath the angel spoken unto me; for he said unto me that there should be thunderings and lightnings for the space of many hours.
And he said unto me that while the thunder and the lightning lasted, and the tempest, that these things should be, and that darkness should cover the face of the whole earth for the space of three days.
And the angel said unto me that many shall see greater things than these, to the intent that they might believe that these signs and these wonders should come to pass upon all the face of this land, to the intent that there should be no cause for unbelief among the children of men. (Helaman 14:14, 20–28; emphasis added)
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And it came to pass in the thirty and fourth year, in the first month, on the fourth day of the month, there arose a great storm, such an one as never had been known in all the land.
And there was also a great and terrible tempest; and there was terrible thunder, insomuch that it did shake the whole earth as if it was about to divide asunder.
And there were exceedingly sharp lightnings, such as never had been known in all the land. (3 Nephi 8:5–7; emphasis added)
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And it came to pass that there was thick darkness upon all the face of the land, insomuch that the inhabitants thereof who had not fallen could feel the vapor of darkness;
And there could be no light, because of the darkness, neither candles, neither torches; neither could there be fire kindled with their fine and exceedingly dry wood, so that there could not be any light at all;
And there was not any light seen, neither fire, nor glimmer, neither the sun, nor the moon, nor the stars, for so great were the mists of darkness which were upon the face of the land.
And it came to pass that it did last for the space of three days that there was no light seen; and there was great mourning and howling and weeping among all the people continually; yea, great were the groanings of the people, because of the darkness and the great destruction which had come upon them. (3 Nephi 8:20–23; emphasis added)
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On the 20th (January 1835), the day having dawned with the usual serenity, at 8 o’clock, towards the southeast, a dense cloud was perceived of a pyramidal figure, preceded by a rumbling noise, and it continued rising until it covered the sun, at which elevation, about 10, it separated to the north and south accompanied by thunder and lightning; the cloud finally covered the whole firmament, about 11, and enveloped everything in the greatest darkness, so that the nearest objects were imperceptible. The melancholy howling of beasts, the flocks of birds of all species, that came to seek, as it were, an asylum amongst men, the terror which assailed the latter, the cries of women and children, and the uncertainty of the issue of so rare a phenomenon, everything combined to overcome the stoutest soul and fill it with apprehension, and the more so when at 4 p.m. the earth began to quake and continued in a perpetual undulation which generally increased.
This was followed by a shower of phosphoric sand, which lasted until 8 p.m., on the same day, when there began a heavy fall of a fine powder-like flour. The thunder and lightning continued the whole night and the following day (the 21st), and at eight minutes past 3 p.m. there was so long and violent an earthquake that many men, who were walking in a penitential procession, were thrown down. The darkness lasted forty-three hours, making it indispensable for everyone to carry a light, and even those were not sufficient to see with.
On the 22nd it was somewhat less dark, although the sun was not visible. And towards the morning of the 23rd, the tremendously loud thunder claps were heard in succession like the firing of pieces of artillery of the largest calibre, and this fresh occurrence was accompanied by increased showers of dust.
From dawn of the 23rd until 10 a.m., a dim light only served to show the most melancholy spectacle. The streets which, from the rocky nature of the soil are full of inequalities and stones, appeared quite level, being covered with dust. Men, women and children were so disfigured that it was not easy to recognize anyone except by the sound of their voices or other circumstances. Houses and trees, not to be distinguished through the dust which covered them, had the most horrible appearance, yet in spite of these appalling sights, they were preferable to the darkness into which we were again plunged from after the said hour of 10, as during the preceding days.
The general distress, which had been assuaged, was renewed and although leaving the place was attended by imminent peril from the wild beasts that sallied forth from the forests and sought the towns and the high roads (as happened in the neighboring village of Conchagua and this town), into which tigers (jaguars) thrust themselves; yet another terror was superior, and more than half the inhabitants of Union emigrated on foot, abandoning their houses, well persuaded that they should never return to them; since they prognosticated the total destruction of the town, and fled with dismay for refuge to the mountains.
At half past 3 on the morning of the 24th, the moon and a few stars were visible, as if through a curtain, and the day was clear although the sun could not be seen, since the dust continued falling, having covered the ground all around to a thickness of five inches. . . .
The 25th and 26th were like the 24th, with frequent though not violent earthquakes . . . and the showers of dust lasted till the 27th.4
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And it came to pass in the thirty and fourth year, in the first month, on the fourth day of the month, there arose a great storm, such an one as never had been known in all the land.
And there was also a great and terrible tempest; and there was terrible thunder, insomuch that it did shake the whole earth as if it was about to divide asunder.
And there were exceedingly sharp lightnings, such as never had been known in all the land.
And the city of Zarahemla did take fire.
And the city of Moroni did sink into the depths of the sea, and the inhabitants thereof were drowned.
And the earth was carried up upon the city of Moronihah that in the place of the city there became a great mountain.
And there was a great and terrible destruction in the land southward.
But behold, there was a more great and terrible destruction in the land northward; for behold, the whole face of the land was changed, because of the tempest and the whirlwinds and the thunderings and the lightnings, and the exceedingly great quaking of the whole earth;
And the highways were broken up, and the level roads were spoiled, and many smooth places became rough.
And many great and notable cities were sunk, and many were burned, and many were shaken till the buildings thereof had fallen to the earth, and the inhabitants thereof were slain, and the places were left desolate.
And there were some cities which remained; but the damage thereof was exceedingly great, and there were many of them who were slain.
And there were some who were carried away in the whirlwind; and whither they went no man knoweth, save they know that they were carried away.
And thus the face of the whole earth became deformed, because of the tempests, and the thunderings, and the lightnings, and the quaking of the earth.
And behold, the rocks were rent in twain; they were broken up upon the face of the whole earth, insomuch that they were found in broken fragments, and in seams and in cracks, upon all the face of the land.
And it came to pass that when the thunderings, and the lightnings, and the storm, and the tempest, and the quakings of the earth did cease—for behold, they did last for about the space of three hours; and it was said by some that the time was greater; nevertheless, all these great and terrible things were done in about the space of three hours—and then behold, there was darkness upon the face of the land.
And it came to pass that there was thick darkness upon all the face of the land, insomuch that the inhabitants thereof who had not fallen could feel the vapor of darkness;
And there could be no light, because of the darkness, neither candles, neither torches; neither could there be fire kindled with their fine and exceedingly dry wood, so that there could not be any light at all;
And there was not any light seen, neither fire, nor glimmer, neither the sun, nor the moon, nor the stars, for so great were the mists of darkness which were upon the face of the land.
And it came to pass that it did last for the space of three days that there was no light seen; and there was great mourning and howling and weeping among all the people continually; yea, great were the groanings of the people, because of the darkness and the great destruction which had come upon them. (3 Nephi 8:5–23; emphasis added)
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| A question that might be asked by those who doubt the truth of the Book of Mormon account is, “What is so remarkable about the account of a volcanic eruption?” “No doubt,” they would say, “Joseph Smith had read an account of a volcanic eruption and thought it would make a nice backdrop for the destruction he envisioned occurring at Christ’s death.” I would answer that the account is remarkable for its detail and accuracy and that such an account would have been impossible for an uneducated young man to have published in 1830. Volcanoes were neither well understood nor well documented in the early 1800s. Geology was a science still in its infancy. The first real textbook of geology was published the same year as the Book of Mormon, 1830, by Charles Lyell in Great Britain. But his descriptions of volcanic eruptions, as well as the few other accounts available in Joseph Smith’s day, are incomplete and do not include all the features found in the Book of Mormon account,features that are now known to occur with large explosive eruptions.8 |
So that brought me to the next question. Where do tornadoes occur? . . . It turns out that tornadoes don’t occur in equatorial regions at all because the conditions necessary for their very formation are absent—not there. . . .
Central America, as the location where the Book of Mormon was supposed to have happened, has never had a single recorded tornado, whereas up here in North America, in our proposed Book of Mormon lands, this is tornado valley. The highest concentration of tornadoes anywhere on the planet happens there.12
The entire issue here is clearly one associated with semantics. Were the whirlwinds of the Book of Mormon tornadoes or hurricanes? Their outcomes are in many ways similar. However, the word hurricane has unique applicability to Mesoamerica because that is where the word originated.
In exploring the word hurricane in connection with the Maya culture of Mesoamerica, Stephen Houston says the following:
The Yucatan peninsula and environs often receive the full brunt of hurricanes. In recent memory, the most notable has been Hurricane Mitch, which grew by October 26, 1998, into a category 5 storm on the Saffir-Simpson scale. On October 4, 2005, Hurricane Stan, although weaker than Mitch, resulted in landslides throughout highland Guatemala, with much loss of life in the area around Lake Atitlan. It would be surprising if the ancient Maya did not take note of such events, too. Hurricanes can be expected with fair frequency during the “official” season from June 1 to November 30, when tropical depressions breed storms that are likely to affect the Maya lands.
The terms for “hurricane” or “strong, revolving winds” vary in Mayan languages yet stress a few consistent themes.13
Houston then lists several Maya dialects together with the Maya words used to describe hurricanes and the corresponding meanings of these words. Among the words on his list are the following:
Ch’orti’, sian ik’ar, “strong continuous wind, wind coming from several directions”
Ch’orti’, sutut ik’ar, “whirlwind”
Yukatek, keh ik’, “strong whirlwind”
Yukatek, ma’lay ik’, “huracan [lasting wind?]”
Yukatek, moson, “torbellino[whirlwind]”
Yukatek, xawal ik’, “hurricane [revolving wind]”
Yukatek, xaway, “wind that runs from all directions”
Poqom, kakzut, “hurricane of wind, that whirls [great turning]”
K’ekchi’, cak-sut-ik’, “huracan [great turning wind]”
Q’anhob’al, kaq xuchem, “remolino (viento) [whirlwind]”
Q’anhob’al, sak chum pay, “remolino (viento) [whirlwind]”
Houston then says, “This short sample includes terms for “wind” (ik’ in Lowland languages), with the added meanings of force or strength, seasonality, deadly danger, magnitudes of water, and wind that comes from many directions—all, to be sure, the precise features of a hurricane. Ch’orti’ explains such winds as the movement or writhings of a powerful serpent.”14
From the Mesoamerica historical record, we know that one of the Maya gods is called “Hurukan,” which obviously is connected to the word hurricane. The following information supports the Mesoamerica Model as the New World setting for the Book of Mormon because the information correlates the Mesoamerican word hurricane with the Book of Mormon word whirlwind:
1. Hurukan is the “ancient Mayan creator god who made the earth, fire, mankind, and animals; he symbolises spiritual enlightenment, fire, disasters, whirlwinds, hurricanes, and thunder.”15
2. Hurukan is also described as the “God of thunderstorms and the whirlwind. His name gave us the word ‘hurricane.’ At the behest of his friend Gucumatz, son of the Sun and the Moon, [Hurukan] created the world, the animals, men and fire.”16
3. Hurukan is described as an “extremely ancient God who created Earth, animals, fire and people.” He rules over “whirlwind, hurricanes, thunder, spiritual illumination.”17
According to Brian Stross, “Whirlwinds can be readily seen to have associations with the devil and thus with the underworld.” When translated from the Chorti Maya, one passage reads as follows: “The chief of the seven apparitions, as well as of all other detrimental deities, is Whirlwind, the principal god of evil. The malignant beings are his ‘ministers’ and do his bidding on earth. Whirlwind is fused with the devil. He is considered responsible for all evil, maledictions, and black magic, and he initiates sorcerers. As the personification of the whirlwind, the most evil of winds, he is called upon by sorcerers and enemies to carry illness and misfortune to others. The whirlwind, which carries more sickness than any other, is the protective covering which the Devil wears when traveling over the earth.”18
Living in upstate New York in the nineteenth century, Joseph Smith, as noted previously, probably knew about tornadoes. However, in his translation of the golden plates, also as noted previously, he did not use the word tornado but rather used a Mesoamerican-equivalent word, whirlwind, which is identical to Maya words that mean hurricane. And he also correctly associated whirlwinds with massive volcanic eruptions.
Once we are familiar with the Mesoamerican historical record, we realize that “tornado” does not adequately describe the Mesoamerican equivalent of these violent storms—especially when they are associated with massive volcanic eruptions.
In summary, an understanding of the background for the word whirlwind gives intriguing support in favor of the Mesoamerica Model over Wayne May, Rod Meldrum, and Bruce Porter’s Heartland Model—especially in connection with volcanoes in Mesoamerica and the total absence of volcanoes in the territory encompassed by the Heartland Model.
Earthquakes and volcanoes. Earthquakes are clearly a phenomenon associated with massive volcanic eruptions. Initially, readers of 3 Nephi 8 might think the account deals mostly with earthquakes. However, the account deals with both massive volcanic eruptions and earthquakes, and earthquakes are of secondary importance to the volcanic eruptions in connection with the 3 Nephi 8 account.
The word earthquake is not used in the 3 Nephi 8 account, although quaking, shake, and shaken are used on several occasions. Obviously, much of the “great and terrible destruction” can be attributed to earthquake activities that occurred in conjunction with the volcanic eruptions. The earthquake language of 3 Nephi 8 includes several very descriptive phrases: “shake the whole earth as if it was about to divide asunder,” “the exceedingly great quaking of the whole earth,” “the city of Moroni did sink into the depths of the sea,” “the earth was carried up upon the city of Moronihah,” “the whole face of the land was changed,” “the highways were broken up, and the level roads were spoiled,” “many great and notable cities were sunk,” “many [cities] were shaken till the buildings thereof had fallen to the earth,” “the face of the whole earth became deformed,” and “the rocks were rent in twain; they were broken up upon the face of the whole earth.” Just as obviously, such destructive activities must be associated with large-scale earthquakes.
Large-scale earthquakes have been studied carefully by scientists. “The energy released during large earthquakes comes from two blocks of earth moving rapidly past each other while years of accumulated strain is released. At most, the shaking of the earth during these massive earthquakes may last for a few minutes”19 followed by aftershocks of a shorter duration.
We can appreciate the scope and significance of the 3 Nephi 8 earthquake activities by realizing the consequences of the earthquakes’ duration—the quakings “did last for about the space of three hours” (3 Nephi 8:19). According to Kowallis, three hours is “too long a time period for the shock from a single large earthquake and too short for the period during which aftershocks following a major earthquake usually take place. However, it is a very reasonable amount of time for the initial stages of a volcanic eruption.”20
Who can say with any certainty what Joseph Smith’s frame of reference or personal experiences were in connection with earthquakes? Clearly, either he had personal earthquake experiences, he had read extensively about earthquakes, or he merely translated the 3 Nephi 8 account as he claimed. The last alternative seems most tenable in light of the 3 Nephi 8 related evidence that suggests he was not capable on his own of using such accurate, descriptive writing and the relative impossibility that he had access to adequate written accounts of such massive volcano-related destructions.
Living in upstate New York in the 1820s, Joseph might have heard of earthquakes. But he probably did not experience any—especially of the magnitude reflected in 3 Nephi 8. And without an eyewitness account to assist him, he could not have accumulated the appropriate earthquake evidence to associate earthquakes with massive volcanic eruptions.
The geographic territories of both the Heartland Model and the Mesoamerica Model are impacted by earthquakes.
For example, in 1811–12, three massive earthquakes were centered in the area of Missouri. Known as the Great New Madrid Earthquake of 1811–12, a series of over two thousand shocks spanned a five-month period. Further, seismologists predict that the area of the Heartland Model, known as the New Madrid seismic zone, will experience massive earthquakes again at some point in the future. Speaking of these events at the annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 2006, Stefan Lovgren of National Geographic News said the following:
Californians know earthquakes. Many residents living near the infamous San Andreas Fault have likely felt their share of minor tremors and maybe even a few violent quakes.
But the approaching anniversary of the great 1906 earthquake that leveled San Francisco has some seismologists turning their attention to a completely different section of the United States.
It’s the middle of the country, these scientists say, that could be at risk from the next “Big One”—and cities there aren’t ready for the shock.
The New Madrid seismic zone—where Missouri, Kentucky, Arkansas, and Tennessee meet—lies in the middle of the North American tectonic plate, thousands of miles from the plate boundaries where earthquakes usually occur.
The zone has three to five faults stretching about 120 miles. . . .
Mark Zoback is a geophysicist at Stanford University in Palo Alto, California, who has studied the New Madrid system for three decades.
He and other experts warn that the region has a recent history of recurring seismic events, including three massive quakes that hit Missouri in 1811–1812.
But modern cities in the New Madrid zone are ill-prepared and could be destroyed if a similarly big earthquake hit them today, the scientists say.21
Thus, the territory of the Heartland Model experiences earthquakes, and occasionally an earthquake can be classified as “massive.”
On the other hand, the territory of the Mesoamerica Model is renowned for its earthquake activities—including earthquakes that are routinely classified as “massive.” The Web site of exxun.com describes the natural hazards, including earthquakes and volcanoes, of countries in Mesoamerica as well as the United States as follows:
Costa Rica Occasional earthquakes, hurricanes along Atlantic coast; frequent flooding of lowlands at onset of rainy season and landslides; active volcanoes.
El Salvador Known as the Land of Volcanoes; frequent and sometimes destructive earthquakes and volcanic activity; extremely susceptible to hurricanes.
Guatemala Numerous volcanoes in mountains, with occasional violent earthquakes; Caribbean coast extremely susceptible to hurricanes and other tropical storms.
Mexico Tsunamis along the Pacific coast, volcanoes and destructive earthquakes in the center and south, and hurricanes on the Pacific, Gulf of Mexico, and Caribbean coasts.
United States Tsunamis, volcanoes, and earthquake activity around Pacific Basin; hurricanes along the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico coasts; tornadoes in the Midwest and Southeast; mud slides in California; forest fires in the West.22
In connection with the present discussion, we should note once again the total absence of any volcanoes in the geographic territory of the Heartland Model.
Patricia Plunket and Gabriela Urunuela, professors of anthropology at the Universidad de las Americas in Puebla, Mexico, discuss Mexico’s two most-famous volcanoes, Popocatepetl and Iztaccihuatl, as follows:
During the height of the rainy season in August 1519, Hernan Cortes led his small army toward the great city of Tenochtitlan, seat of the Aztec Empire. Their march led them to the city of Cholula on the western side of the Puebla Valley. From here Cortes observed that: “Eight leagues from this city . . . there are two marvelously high mountains whose summits still at the end of August are covered with snow so that nothing else can be seen of them. From the higher of the two both by day and night a great volume of smoke often comes forth and rises up into the clouds as straight as a staff, with such force that although a very violent wind continuously blows over the mountain range yet it cannot change the direction of the column.”
This 17,900-foot volcano, known to the Aztecs as Popocatepetl, or “Smoking Mountain,” was a focal point in the sacred geography of ancient Mexico. In the Florentine Codex, Bernardino de Sahagun, a Franciscan friar who documented native customs and beliefs during the decades immediately following the conquest, commented that the mountains of the Sierra Nevada, in particular Popocatepetl and its northern neighbor Iztaccihuatl, were considered sacred since the rain clouds converged on them. He tells how even toward the end of the sixteenth century pilgrimages were still made to their summits to offer sacrifices to the water deities, but none of the early sources clearly states who the volcano gods were.
Since 1993 we have directed salvage excavations on Popocatepetl’s lower flanks, where we have found evidence of the inhabitants’ attempts to propitiate the volcano in ways not unlike those recorded by the Spaniards more than 1,500 years later. This fertile region, known as Tetimpa, was first settled by farmers about 700 BC. Their wattle-and-daub houses [were] built on low stone platforms placed around a central patio. After at least partially abandonment around 100 BC, perhaps due to increasing volcanic activity, the area was resettled a few generations later, possibly by descendants of the original inhabitants, since the new houses were built directly over the remains of the old platforms and floors that sealed the graves of their ancestors. At the center of each patio, families built small shrines consisting of mountains modeled from clay, stone, and potsherds crowned with crudely carved heads of humans or serpents. Some are clearly effigies of Popocatepetl. Beneath each carved stone head is a chimney that leads to a charcoal-filled chamber dug in the patio floor. Smoke would have puffed out from under each head in imitation of the ash and vapor plumes expelled from the crater during volcanic activity.
Although the village and its shrines are separated from the Aztec world by 1,500 years, it is interesting to compare the shrines with descriptions of the feast of Tepeilhuitl given by Fray Bernardino de Sahagun’s native informants: “In this month they celebrated a feast in honor of the high mountains, which are in all the lands of this New Spain, where the large clouds pile up. They made the images of each one of them in human form, from the dough which is called tzoalli, and they laid offerings before these images in veneration of these same mountains.” The most fascinating part of Sahagun’s account is that the mountain models are given human faces. In fact, the Spanish text indicates that each mountain was given two faces, one human and one serpent. The dual nature of the mountains described in the Florentine Codex recalls the human and serpent images that crown the volcano effigies of the village shrines and suggests a conceptual continuity that spans some 1,500 years.
About AD 80, Popocatepetl erupted, blanketing the landscape with a thick layer of fragmented pumice, or lapilli. When it was over, the villages lay preserved beneath three to seven feet of lapilli. A huge lava flow then descended over the southern part of the area, burying any settlements there under as much as 325 feet of solid rock. Geological studies undertaken as part of our project show that the eruptive column rose to a height of between 15 and 18 miles before it collapsed over the Puebla side of the mountain. Perhaps construction of Cholula’s Great Pyramid, which echoes the contours of Popocatepetl and may have started at this time, was at least in part an attempt to appease the mountain. Some believe that the pyramid’s Indian name, Tlachihualtepetl (“Man-made Hill”), reflects the imitative effort of those who built it.
The farmers who live on the flanks of Popocatepetl today see the volcano in human terms. To them he is Gregorio, a name first used in the villages on the mountain’s northeastern flank, perhaps originating with an eruption on St. Gregory’s day earlier in this century. In December 1994, Popocatepetl erupted once again, and it has remained in a period of intermittent activity since then, occasionally spewing forth huge plumes of ash and vapor and producing great rumblings from within. Since the eruption, the name Don Gregorio and the nickname Don Goyo have come into general usage. A male being with long wavy hair, thought by some to represent the smoke tendrils that unfurl from the crater, he is related by practitioners of traditional folk religion to God the Father and Jesus Christ. Tradition requires that he be venerated with offerings placed in sacred caves high on the slopes of the mountain, an example of the general Mesoamerican metaphor of caves on mountains and temples on pyramids. Ten years ago there were still specialists well versed in the rites of propitiation for the volcano, but when the last of these died, the rituals were not performed correctly and, for the most part, the offerings were discontinued.23
The reported eruption of Popocatepetl about AD 80 is less than fifty years’ difference in time from the massive AD 34 volcanic eruptions reported in 3 Nephi 8 at the time of Christ’s crucifixion. From a statistical perspective, Popocatepetl could well be one of the volcanoes that erupted in AD 34 as described in 3 Nephi 8. And certainly the language that Plunket and Urunuela use in describing the eruption of Popocatepetl closely matches the descriptive language of the Book of Mormon in 3 Nephi 8.
Vapors, mists, and darkness. Let us pause here and attempt to picture nineteenth-century Palmyra, New York, and Joseph Smith’s involvement with the Book of Mormon in 1829. As we think about his environment and perceptions, we could readily acknowledge that the uniquely descriptive wording he used in 3 Nephi 8 reflects both knowledge beyond his capacity to exhibit as well as inspiration given directly to him through the translation process.
That is, the New World crucifixion-of-Christ events recorded in 3 Nephi 8 bear distinctive testimony that Joseph Smith translated, not merely authored, the Book of Mormon. The darkness of 3 Nephi 8 was such that the people could feel it. If we consult Noah Webster’s 1828 dictionary, the word darkness at the time Joseph translated the Book of Mormon clearly meant “absence of light.”24 But Joseph’s wording describing the darkness of 3 Nephi 8 involved more than mere “absence of light.” That is, the terms thick darkness, mists of darkness, and vapor of darkness go beyond mere “absence of light.” At this point, we could ask, “What kind of darkness does Joseph’s translation describe with such terminology?”
Noah Webster’s 1828 dictionary is often useful in helping Book of Mormon readers understand precisely how words were defined during the time of the Book of Mormon’s translation. We can enlighten ourselves about the word darkness in 3 Nephi 8 by looking up the words thick, mist, and vapor in Webster’s 1828 dictionary. Among their definitions are the following in 1828:25
· Thick (1828) a. Dense; not thin; as thick vapors; a thick fog.
· Mist (1828) n. That which dims or darkens, and obscures or intercepts vision. v.t. To cloud; to cover with vapor.
· Vapor (1828) n. (1) In a general sense, an invisible elastic fluid, rendered aeriform by heat, and capable of being condensed, or brought back to the liquid or solid state, by cold. The vapor of water is distinguished by the name of steam. (2) A visible fluid floating in the atmosphere. All substances which impair the transparency of the atmosphere, as smoke, fog, etc. are in common language called vapors, though the term vapor is technically applied only to an invisible and condensible substance, as in No. 1; fog, etc. being vapor condensed, or water in a minute state of division. (3) Substances resembling smoke, which sometimes fill the atmosphere, particularly in America during the autumn.
If we were to ponder over the words darkness, thick, mist, and vapor as defined above in relation to 3 Nephi 8, we could draw the following conclusions:
1. Yes, darkness means “absence of light.” According to the 1828 Webster dictionary, dark as an adjective means “destitute of light.” We routinely experience varying degrees of “darkness” in our lives; however, in today’s word, we can still typically “see” to some extent when we’re in the “dark.” But the kind of “darkness” in 3 Nephi 8 is “total darkness.” We don’t experience that kind of darkness very often. One place to experience it is at Carlsbad Caverns in New Mexico. To give visitors a feeling for total darkness, the tour guide at Carlsbad turns off the lights while the group is in a deep underground setting. The resulting feeling is rather eerie and is almost frightening. It must be akin to the feeling a totally blind person initially has after being accustomed to the sensation of vision.
2. The expressions thick darkness, mists of darkness, and vapor of darkness imply the presence of something in the atmosphere. That “something” enabled the people to “feel” the darkness. We probably have experienced the feeling of something in the atmosphere when we’ve been in heavy fog—or dense or thick fog as a reflection of Webster’s definitions.
3. The term vapor of darkness is especially descriptive of the 3 Nephi 8 darkness. According to Webster, any substance that impairs the transparency of the atmosphere might be referred to as a vapor, although we commonly apply the term to a “condensable” substance. That description applies to any water vapor in the 3 Nephi 8 darkness, but it falls short of describing aptly the presence of dust in the atmosphere, perhaps in conjunction with a condensed substance. The description also falls short of describing appropriately the presence of poisonous volcanic gases that helped create the vapor of darkness. Mormon points out that among the righteous who were spared were those who were not “overpowered by the vapor of smoke and of darkness” (3 Nephi 10:13). That wording clearly suggests the presence of poisonous volcanic gases that are commonly associated with volcanic eruptions and that can be fatal to those who breathe the air filled with those gases.
4. The darkness of 3 Nephi 8 in the New World at the time of Christ’s crucifixion was altogether different from the darkness the people experienced in the Old World at the time of the crucifixion. Clearly, Joseph Smith’s choices of words to describe the New World darkness should contribute significantly to any Book of Mormon reader’s understanding that he translated the golden plates as he claimed. That is, our testimonies of the Book of Mormon’s truthfulness should be enhanced by our understanding the unique nature of the darkness in 3 Nephi 8.
As noted by Kowallis, “It is the violent, explosive eruptions from subduction-related volcanoes . . . that can explain the events of 3 Nephi.”26 In this respect, the gases and ashes from such volcanic eruptions produce the vapors, mists, and darkness with which 3 Nephi 8 is concerned.
Speaking of ash fallout from volcanic eruptions, one writer notes the following:
When ash falls back to the ground it turns everything deathly gray. Falling ash can strip leaves and limbs from trees. If enough ash falls, fruit orchards and entire forests are left barren. A thick layer of ash can destroy crops and leave farm land unworkable for weeks or months at a time. Fields can be made useless for grazing animals and water may be unsuitable for drinking. Falling ash affects people farther from an erupting volcano than any other type of activity. . . . Falling ash usually creates a very dense haze sometimes turning day into night and creating a darkness that light can’t penetrate. Its an erie [sic] darkness and will last for as long as the ash falls. For some people, ash makes breathing strenuous and it irritates their eyes.27
The extreme darkness resulting from the ash-laden air of massive volcanic eruptions will naturally make people seek a source of light. The only source of light available to the 3 Nephi 8 survivors was a fire of some kind. However, Mormon notes in his abridgment that a fire could not be started: “And there could be no light, because of the darkness, neither candles, neither torches; neither could there be fire kindled with their fine and exceedingly dry wood, so that there could not be any light at all” (3 Nephi 8:21).
The vapors and mists caused by the eruptions’ gases and mists must have been responsible for this situation. As we read Joseph Smith’s descriptive language in verse 21, we could try to imagine the unexplainable horror and claustrophobia we would probably feel if we had been in such total darkness in AD 34 without the ability to light a fire. Because of volcanic research, we now understand the nature of the vapors and mists that have such a smothering effect on open flames,28 and that knowledge should help us appreciate Joseph Smith and the translation process that reflects correct scientific data about this strange phenomenon.
Had we lived in upstate New York in the 1820s, could we have penned the descriptive language associated with vapors, mists, and darkness in association with the massive volcanic eruptions in 3 Nephi 8? Answer: No—unless we would have had access to an eyewitness account about the vapors, mists, and darkness associated with some types of volcanic eruptions. One thing is certain—no volcanic eruptions had occurred in upstate New York or in any of the other territory of the Heartland Model of Wayne May, Rod Meldrum, and Bruce Porter during any of the time periods of the Book of Mormon. That singular fact negates the viability and validity of the Heartland Model as the New World setting for the Book of Mormon.
In response to the question, “Does the Book of Mormon contain any indications of weather and climate?” the answer is clearly “Yes!” Among the indications are two very noteworthy instances for purposes of this discussion.
First, the word “seasons” in the Book of Mormon clearly supports the validity of the Mesoamerica Model. That is, throughout most of Mesoamerica during Book of Mormon time periods, two seasons—the dry season and the rainy season—were connected to all facets of the cultures (as opposed to the seasons of spring, summer, fall, and winter that are touted as positive support for the Heartland Model).
For example, in the first century BC, an extensive famine afflicted the people of Nephi because of their wickedness. After they repented, we are told the following: “And it came to pass that in the seventy and sixth year the Lord did turn away his anger from the people, and caused that rain should fall upon the earth, insomuch that it did bring forth her fruit in the season of her fruit. And it came to pass that it did bring forth her grain in the season of her grain” (Helaman 11:17; emphasis added).
The word “season” in these instances refers to the dry season or the season of harvest. Warfare and harvesting activities took place throughout historical Mesoamerica during the dry season because the heavy rain and mud during the rainy season put the damper on warfare activities and negated totally all harvesting activities.
The crucifixion of Christ took place during the dry season in Mesoamerica, and that’s probably why rain is not associated with the weather-related outcomes of the massive volcanic eruptions in AD 34. Rain is commonly connected to Mesoamerican hurricane/whirlwind weather, but rain apparently was not a weather factor at the crucifixion of Christ.
Second, a perceptive reading of the content dealing with the New World destruction at the crucifixion of Christ reveals significant facts about weather and about the invalidity of the Heartland Model and the validity of the Mesoamerica Model as proposed New World settings for the Book of Mormon. At least the following significant outcomes can be deduced from that perceptive reading:
1. In prophesying of the New World events associated with the crucifixion of Christ, Nephi notes that the events would occur in the “land of promise.” His description of the destructive forces clearly relate to massive volcanic eruptions. Volcanoes are nonexistent in territory connected to the Heartland Model. Therefore, in speaking of the “promised land” in connection with volcanic eruptions, Nephi is not referring to territory in the Heartland Model.
2. When Samuel the Lamanite prophesied about the destructive forces associated with Christ’s crucifixion, Samuel noted that the events would take place in the territory of “this land.” As with Nephi’s prophecy involving volcanic eruptions, Samuel’s prophecy also relates to massive volcanic eruptions. Therefore, in speaking of “this land” where those volcanic eruptions would occur, Samuel is not referring to territory in the Heartland Model.
3. Mormon’s use of the phrases “the land” and “this land” in his summary of the eyewitness account of the volcanic eruptions cannot refer to territory of the Heartland Model because no volcanic eruptions occurred in that territory during Book of Mormon times. In answer to the question, “Why are there no volcanoes in the Midwest or East coast?” a Wiki Web site reports the following:
We’re waiting to see if Mount St. Helens will erupt again in Washington State, but we never hear about volcanic activity on the East Coast of the U.S. There’s a scientific reason for this.
Sally Harris writes that the kinds of geological conditions there don’t support volcanic activity. Geoscientist R. J. Tracy says, “The active margin of North America is its western margin, and only the northwestern segment of it currently has the right conditions to produce volcanoes like Mount St. Helens. The interior of North America and the East coast lie far from any currently active plate boundaries and therefore are not locales where volcanism can occur.”
At least one of the following conditions must be present for volcanic activity: “Divergent margins,” which are places where the Earth’s plates move apart; “Convergent margins,” where the Earth’s plates collide and one dips below the other forming a volcanic arc that may become active; or “Hot spots” in the Earth’s mantle.29
4. Because the Heartland Model does not meet the conditions of the following critical criterion for identifying the New World setting of the Book of Mormon, the Heartland Model is an invalid geographic model: “Any potential New World setting for the Book of Mormon must show evidence of volcanic activities during the time periods of the Book of Mormon.”
5. The descriptive wording of 3 Nephi 8 about the destruction associated with massive volcanic eruptions in the New World gives significant testimony that Joseph Smith translated the Book of Mormon as he claimed. That is, because Joseph could not have had access to eyewitness accounts of massive volcanic eruptions and their aftermaths, he could not have authored the content of 3 Nephi 8 on his own.
6. A minor but singular signal that Joseph Smith translated the Book of Mormon by the gift and power of God, as he claimed, is reflected in his choice of “whirlwind” rather than “tornado” associated with the massive volcanic eruptions of 3 Nephi 8. That is, from the perspective of his environment and perceptions, he logically would have chosen “tornado” in reference to the weather conditions of 3 Nephi 8. That he chose “whirlwind” as a reflection of the hurricanes and languages of Mesoamerica signals clearly that he translated rather than authored the Book of Mormon.
7. The terminology of “land of promise,” “this land,” and “the land” as used in Nephi’s prophecy, in Samuel the Lamanite’s prophecy, and in Mormon’s 3 Nephi 8 abridgment signals that Mesoamerica cannot be excluded from the territories referred to in the Book of Mormon via the terms “promised land” and “this land.” As a result, all of “North America,” which in many prominent models begins at the Isthmus of Panama, must be considered to be the “promised land”—not just the continental United States.
1. Rodney Meldrum, DNA Evidence for Book of Mormon Geography: New Scientific Support for the Truthfulness of the Book of Mormon; Correlation and Verification through DNA, Prophetic, Scriptural, Historical, Climatological, Archaeological, Social, and Cultural Evidence (n.p.: Rodney Meldrum, 2008).
2. As an aside to the discussion that follows, some proponents of the Heartland Model suggest totally unrealistic explanations for the destructive forces of 3 Nephi 8. For example, Vincent Coon says the following: “Volcanoes are no where mentioned in the Book of Mormon. Firestorms are inferred, caused at least in part by lightning. . . . Tempests, tornadoes and earthquakes threaten the northeastern United States where Cumorah resides. The God of nature is certainly able to subject the Great Lakes region of America to three hours of cataclysm, followed by three days of profound darkness. Still, it is common to recognize in volcanoes and volcanic ash the potential for great destruction and darkness, but there are other cataclysmic and sky darkening potentials in nature. There are, for instance, immense deposits of methane on the floor of the North Atlantic. If released in sufficient quantity by earthquake or cosmic impact, an explosive cloud of horrific potential could rise from the ocean depths. A single lightning strike might detonate the cloud and trigger dreadful repercussions in air, sea and land. Large swaths of shrubbery and wooded coastline could be conflagrated suddenly.” (W. Vincent Coon, Choice Above All Other Lands: Book of Mormon Covenant Lands According to the Best Sources [Salt Lake City: Brit Publishing, 2008], 11, 13)
3. See, for example, Bart J. Kowallis, “In the Thirty and Fourth Year: A Geologist’s View of the Great Destruction in 3 Nephi,” BYU Studies 37, no. 3 (1997–98).
4. Payson D. Sheets, “An Ancient Natural Disaster,” Expedition, 14 (Fall 1971): 24–31; emphasis added.
5. Kowallis, “In the Thirty and Fourth Year.”
6. See “Eye Witness to the Eruption of A.D. 79!” http://jefferson.village.virginia.edu/pompeii/ pliny.html (accessed March 5, 2000).
7. “Eye Witness to the Eruption of A.D. 79!”; emphasis added.
8. Kowallis, “In the Thirty and Fourth Year,” 181; emphasis added.
9. Kowallis, “In the Thirty and Fourth Year,” 148.
10. Kowallis, “In the Thirty and Fourth Year,” 152.
11. Kowallis, “In the Thirty and Fourth Year,” 185n24.
12. Meldrum, DNA Evidence for Book of Mormon Geography, section 7, “Weather and Climate.”
13. Stephen Houston, “Hurricane!” Mesoweb, www.mesoweb.com/articles/houston/Hurri cane.pdf (accessed February 10, 2009); emphasis added.
14. Houston, “Hurricane!”; emphasis added.
15. “Aztec and Mayan Gods,” www.geocities.com/tragicpixie/GodAzMay.html (accessed March 10, 2009).
16. “Mayan Gods,” www.firstpeople.us/glossary/native-american-gods-south-america-maya.html (accessed March 10, 2009).
17. “The Gods and Goddesses of the Mayas,” http://www.scns.com/earthen/other/seanachaidh/ godmaya.html (accessed March 10, 2009).
18. Brian Stross, “Xibalba or Xibalbe,” www.utexas.edu/courses/stross/papers/xibalba.rtf (accessed March 10, 2009).
19. Kowallis, “In the Thirty and Fourth Year,” 158.
20. Kowallis, “In the Thirty and Fourth Year,” 159.
21. Stefan Lovgren, “Big Earthquake Could Devastate U.S. Midwest, Experts Warn,” http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/04/0412_060412_earthquake.html (accessed March 11, 2009).
22. “Natural Hazards,” http://www.exxun.com/afd/mp_natural_hazards/dy_65.html (accessed March 11, 2009).
23. Patricia Plunket and Gabriela Urunuela, “Appeasing the Volcano Gods,” Archaeology 51, no. 4 (July/August 1998), www.archaeology.org/9807/abstracts/volcano.html (accessed March 11, 2009).
24. Noah Webster, An American Dictionary of the English Language (New York: S. Converse, 1828), s.v. “darkness.”
25. Webster, An American Dictionary of the English Language, s.v. “darkness,” “thick,” “mist,” and “vapor.”
26. Kowallis, “In the Thirty and Fourth Year,” 145.
27. “Damage Caused by Ash Fallout,” taken from a video clip entitled “Understanding Volcanic Hazards,” International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of Earth’s Interior, 1995, www.solarviews.com/cap/volc/ash2.htm (accessed March 4, 2000)
28. See Kowallis, “In the Thirty and Fourth Year,” 176–80.
29. “Why Are There No Volcanoes in the Midwest or East Coast?” http://wiki.answers.com/Q/ Why_are_there_no_volcanoes_in_the_Midwest_or_East_coast (accessed March 9, 20